Demystifying the R* Symbol - A Math Enthusiast‘s Guide - 33rd Square (2024)

As a lifelong math geek and data analyst, I‘m always exploring new mathematical concepts. Recently, I became fascinated with the R symbol, which appears throughout many fields of mathematics. At first glance, R seemed mysterious – what does that asterisk mean? But as I researched deeper, I uncovered the symbol‘s many applications.

In this guide, I‘ll share what I‘ve learned about R* to help fellow math enthusiasts unlock the meaning behind this versatile notational shorthand. Along the way, we‘ll encounter some interesting mathematical detours that showcase the creativity of mathematicians!

R* in Set Theory and Number Systems

The most common use of R* is to denote the set of nonzero real numbers. Let‘s break this down step-by-step:

• R is the set of all real numbers on the number line. This includes all rational numbers like 1/2, 3/4, etc. as well as irrational numbers like π, √2, e, and so on.

• The asterisk * is a notation meaning "exclude zero".

• Therefore, R* is the set of all real numbers, excluding zero.

For visualization, we can think of R* as the entire number line with zero removed:

Figure 1: All real numbers except 0 make up R*

What properties does this useful set R* have?

• R contains only nonzero real numbers. So by definition, 0 ∉ R.
• R* has the same cardinality (size) as R, meaning both sets are uncountably infinite.
• Under multiplication, R* forms an abelian group called the multiplicative group of the reals.

To unpack that last point, R* meets all the requirements of being a mathematical group:

• Closure – Multiplying any two nonzero real numbers always produces another nonzero real number. For example, (-3) (1/2) = -3/2, which is still in R.
• Associativity – Multiplication is associative, meaning a(bc) = (ab)c for all a, b, c in R*.
• Identity – The number 1 serves as the multiplicative identity, since 1 a = a 1 = a.
• Inverses – Every nonzero real number a has a multiplicative inverse 1/a, which gives a * (1/a) = 1.
• Commutativity – Multiplication in R commutes, or a b = b * a.

As an abelian group under multiplication, R* shows up frequently in abstract algebra. It represents the nonzero elements that make up a field‘s multiplicative structure.

Now for a fun digression into surreal numbers!

Detour: R* in the Surreals

In combinatorial game theory, there‘s an elegant number system called the surreal numbers. These include all real numbers plus infinite and infinitesimal quantities.

The surreal numbers themselves form an ordered field, but what about their multiplicative structure? It turns out the nonzero surreals also form an abelian group under multiplication. This group is typically denoted as R* to align with the reals!

So in the surreal number system, R* contains not just nonzero reals, but also infinite numbers, infinitesimals, and other exotic elements like ω – 1, where ω is infinity.

This example shows how R* provides a nice shorthand for the multiplicative group, even when extended to new number systems. The asterisk succinctly represents "the nonzeros" regardless of context.

Okay, back to more standard uses of R*! Along with set theory, it also appears in analysis and topology.

R* in Analysis and Topology

In mathematical analysis, the symbol R* shows up in the context of binary relations and function composition.

A binary relation R on a set X is a set of ordered pairs of elements in X. For example:

R = { (1, 2), (2, 4), (2, 5) }

The reflexive, transitive closure of R, denoted R*, is the smallest relation containing R that is:

• Reflexive – Contains all pairs (x, x) for each x in X.
• Transitive – If (a, b) and (b, c) are in R*, then (a, c) is also in R*.

For the relation above, its closure would be:

R* = { (1, 1), (2, 2), (4, 4), (5, 5), (1, 2), (2, 4), (2, 5), (1, 4), (1, 5) }

We added the reflexive pairs and any implied pairs like (1, 4) and (1, 5) from transitivity.

For functions f: X → Y, R* represents the set of all possible composite functions formed by composing functions in R sequentially.

For example, if R contains functions f: R→R and g: R→R, R* would contain functions like f(g(x)), g(f(x)), f(f(g(x))), and so on. This captures repeating or recursive function composition.

Category theory tells us R* always forms the smallest subcategory containing R that is closed under composition.

Moving to topology, R* appears in the following important theorem:

Brouwer‘s Fixed Point Theorem: For any continuous function f: R* → R*, there exists a point x such that f(x) = x.

This powerful result has many applications in game theory and optimization. The domain R* instead of R avoids some pathological cases involving the point 0.

R* in Complex Analysis

In complex analysis, R* takes on a different meaning related to conformal mappings.

Conformal maps are functions that preserve angles. R* refers specifically to conformal mappings from the complex plane C to itself that fix 0 and ∞.

For example, the map f(z) = z^2 is conformal since it preserves angles. And f(0) = 0, f(∞) = ∞, so f(z) meets the R* criteria.

These types of mappings are called Schwarz-Christoffel transformations. They include important functions like logarithms and exponentials that map regions in the upper half-plane to polygon shapes.

Visualizing how these complex functions warp triangles, circles, and lines provides some wonderful eye candy for math and physics enthusiasts.

Figure 2: Conformal mapping of a triangle, via Wikimedia Commons

The mesmerizing animations of conformal mappings showcase the beauty of complex functions. And R* gives a name to these cool structure-preserving transformations of the complex plane.

This R* also appears in complex analysis when defining the residue theorem:

For any function f(z) that is analytic on C except at isolated singularities {a1, a2, … am}, we have:

Figure 3: The residue theorem, where γ is a closed contour in R*

The residue theorem, and its special case the Cauchy integral theorem, are invaluable for evaluating line integrals in engineering and physics.

R* provides the domain on which these integral theorems apply. By excluding the singularities, it makes the function f(z) analytic so we can leverage powerful results like Cauchy‘s integral formula.

R* in Probability and Statistics

Finally, R* plays an important role in probability theory and statistics when dealing with random variables.

The moment generating function (MGF) of a random variable X is defined as the expected value of e^tX over the domain R*:

MGF(t) = E[e^tX] for all t ∈ R*

We use R here because e^tX could diverge or be undefined at t = 0. R avoids this issue and gives the largest domain on which the MGF exists.

Some key facts about the MGF:

• The MGF uniquely determines the probability distribution of X.
• The Nth derivative of the MGF evaluated at 0 gives the Nth moment of X.
• The MGF can be used to determine mean, variance, skewness, kurtosis and other distribution parameters.

For example, a standard normal distribution has MGF:

Figure 4: MGF of a normal distribution N(0, 1)

This simple, elegant function encodes everything about the shape, center, and spread of the normal distribution.

The MGF is easier to work with than manipulating density functions directly. It serves as a powerful tool for calculating moments and marginal distributions in probability theory.

When Does R* Show Up?

Looking across all these examples, we can discern some patterns about when R* appears:

• R* represents a set of "nice" or "well-behaved" non-zero elements:
  • Non-zero reals in algebra
  • Analytic functions in complex analysis
  • Continuous maps in topology
• R* excludes problematic elements:
  • Zero in groups and fields
  • Singularities and poles in complex functions
  • The origin in conformal mappings
• R* defines a "maximal domain" where an object is defined everywhere:
  • The MGF of a probability distribution
  • Integration contours in complex analysis

In this way, R* provides a flexible notation for mathematicians. It succinctly captures some structure or set that is nonzero, well-behaved, and maximal.

Conclusion

Over the course of exploring R*, we‘ve toured through set theory, algebra, topology, complex analysis, and probability. This whirlwind guide highlights the diverse applications of this compact notation.

R elegantly represents important mathematical objects across fields: groups, binary relations, conformal maps, and more. Understanding the multitude of meanings behind R sheds light on how mathematicians convey concepts through symbolic shorthand.

So next time you see a mysterious R* symbol, remember this guide! Let it serve as a decoder ring unlocking the rich meaning contained within a single character.

I hope this piece provides valuable insight not only into R*, but also into how mathematics weaves together through shared notations and abstractions. That interconnectedness is what makes math discovery so captivating.

Now go impress your friends at parties by explaining R* symbols spotted in the wild!

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